10THOU — Hardware Reference

Fasteners

ISO 4762 · ASME B18.3

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Metric

Imperial

Head Type

Length

Substrate

copied—

PinPinned

Side View

Head Top

copied

Tap Drill

—mm

copied

Pitch

—

copied

Head Dia

—

Clearance Holes

copied

Free Fit

—mm

copied

Close Fit

—mm

copied

Insert Hole

—mm

Thread engagement: 1–1.5× diam. in metal, 2× in plastic.

Torque to 70–80% of yield. Use Loctite 243 (medium) for vibration, 263 for permanent.

Free fit clearance for floating joints. Close fit for locating features. Never use close fit in plastic — thermal expansion will bind.

In aluminum, use Helicoil / E-Z Lok inserts. Boss OD = 2× insert OD min.

Never reuse fasteners torqued above 90% yield. Single-use for safety-critical joints.

Metric Bolt Grades (ISO 898-1)

Grade	Tensile (MPa)	Yield (MPa)	Common Use
4.6	400	240	Low-load, non-critical
8.8	800	640	General structural — most common
10.9	1040	940	High-strength structural
12.9	1220	1100	Highest strength. Always use dry.
A2-70	700	450	304 SS — corrosion resistance
A4-80	800	600	316 SS — marine / chemical

Head Type Guide

Head	Drive	Best For
Socket (SHCS)	Hex key	High torque, recessed, clean appearance
Button (BHCS)	Hex key	Low profile, decorative, medium torque
Flat / CSK	Hex key	Flush to surface. 90° countersink required.
Hex (HHCS)	Spanner	High torque, external drive, structural
Torx / Star	Torx	High torque, no cam-out, automotive
Pan head	Phillips/Torx	Sheet metal, general light assembly

Verify against ISO 4762 / ASME B18.3 for critical applications.

Heat Set Inserts

Brass · 3D Print

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Metric

Imperial

Length

copied—

PinPinned

Hole to Print

—mm

Insert OD

—

Length

—

Min Boss OD

—

copied

Pull-out

—

N approx

Install Temp

200–250°C

Use a dedicated insert tip (Hakko T15-KF). Tapered tips can become trapped in cooling metal.

Hole depth = insert length + 50% for displaced plastic. A 1–2° entry taper aids alignment.

Boss wall min 2× insert OD from hole centre to prevent splitting.

PLA 180–200°C · PETG 200–230°C · ABS 220–250°C · Nylon 240–260°C. Go slowly — melt, don't scorch.

Set slicer to 4+ perimeters around insert boss holes for maximum pull-out strength.

Allow insert to cool fully before threading. Disturbing while hot reduces seating quality by up to 40%.

Insert Brand Comparison

Brand	Type	Knurl	Notes
Ruthex	Brass	Radial + axial	Excellent pull-out. Best for PETG/ABS. EU stock.
CNCKitchen	Brass	Radial	Good all-rounder, well-tested in public benchmarks
McMaster-Carr	Brass	Knurled OD	Standard availability. Good for prototyping.
Würth	Brass	Helical	High-quality, widely spec'd in production parts
Böllhoff	Brass / SS	Multi-grip	Premium industrial. DIN 7965 compliant.

Filament Compatibility

Material	Install Temp	Pull-out	Notes
PLA	180–200°C	Low	Soft matrix, lower pull-out. Use longest insert available.
PETG	200–230°C	Good	Best combination of ease and strength
ABS	220–250°C	Good	Good re-melt properties. Ideal for inserts.
ASA	230–250°C	Good	Similar to ABS. UV stable outdoor use.
Nylon	240–260°C	Excellent	Best pull-out strength. Absorbs moisture — dry before printing.
PC	260–280°C	Excellent	Highest strength. Requires high temp iron and precise control.

Based on McMaster-Carr and CNCKitchen brass inserts. ODs vary by brand — verify before finalising hole diameter.

O-Rings

AS568 · ISO 3601

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

ISO Metric

AS568

Material

copied—

PinPinned

—

copied

Tol. ID

—

copied

Tol. CS

—

Temp Range

—

Groove Design (25% compression)

copied

Groove W Static

—

copied

Groove W Dyn

—

copied

Groove Depth

—

copied

Stretch %

—

Material Properties

Nitrile

Petroleum oils, fuels, hydraulics. −40 to 120°C. Most common general-purpose seal. Excellent abrasion resistance. Avoid ozone, sunlight, ketones.

Viton

Aggressive chemicals, solvents, fuel additives, high temps to 200°C. Best for harsh environments. More expensive. Poor low-temp flexibility below −20°C.

Silicone

Extreme temps −60 to 230°C. Food/medical-grade available. Excellent UV/ozone resistance. Poor abrasion and tensile strength — static seals only.

EPDM

Water, steam, ozone, UV, brake fluid. −45 to 150°C. Outdoor weathering applications. Not compatible with petroleum oils or fuels — swell severely.

Compression: 20–30% static, 10–25% dynamic. Never exceed 30% — permanent set.

Groove width: 1.5× CS static · 1.4× CS dynamic. Depth = CS × (1 – compression)

Gland surface: Ra <0.8 µm dynamic · Ra <1.6 µm static. Lubricate on install.

Stretch ID over shaft 1–5%. More stretch = lower sealing force. Zero stretch on static face seals.

Never reuse an O-ring removed from service. Cost of a new O-ring is always less than the leak.

Chemical Compatibility (✓ Good · ~ Limited · ✗ Avoid)

Fluid	Nitrile	Viton	Silicone	EPDM
Petroleum oil	✓	✓	~	✗
Water / steam	✓	~	✓	✓
Fuels (petrol)	✓	✓	✗	✗
Ketones / MEK	✗	✗	✓	✓
Acids (dilute)	~	✓	~	✓
Brake fluid (DOT)	✗	✓	~	✓
Ozone / UV	✗	✓	✓	✓
Ammonia	~	✗	✓	✓

Verify against ISO 3601 / AS568B. Parker O-Ring Handbook is the authoritative design reference.

Bearings

ISO 281 · ABEC

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Series

Bearing No.

copied—

PinPinned

Bore Ø

—

Outer Ø

—

Width

—

copied

Dyn. C

—

copied

Stat. C₀

—

copied

Max RPM

—

L10 life (million rev): (C/P)³. P = equiv. dynamic load. 90% reliability baseline. Double life = load × 0.794.

Housing: H7 bore for stationary outer ring · k5/m5 shaft for rotating inner ring.

Never hammer a bearing onto a shaft — press via inner ring only. Heat housing to 80–100°C for interference fits.

Speed limit is for grease. Oil extends ~30–50%. Reduce 50% for vertical or high-temp applications.

Don't over-grease — fill 30–50% of free space. Over-greasing generates heat and accelerates failure.

ABEC Tolerance Grades

ABEC	ISO	Bore Tol.	Typical Use
ABEC-1	P0	±12 µm	General purpose machinery, agriculture
ABEC-3	P6	±8 µm	Electric motors, pumps, gearboxes
ABEC-5	P5	±5 µm	Machine tool spindles, precision motors
ABEC-7	P4	±4 µm	High-speed spindles, aerospace
ABEC-9	P2	±2.5 µm	Gyroscopes, ultra-precision instruments

Shaft & Housing Fit Guide

Application	Shaft Fit	Housing Fit
Rotating inner, stationary outer	k5 / m5	H7
Stationary inner, rotating outer	h6 / g6	M7 / N7
Light load, easy removal	j5 / js5	H7 / J7
Heavy load, permanent fit	n6 / p6	P7
Thin-walled housing (plastic)	k5	H7 +0.01mm

Lubrication Guide

Type	Speed	Temp Range	Notes
Lithium grease	Medium	−30 to 120°C	General purpose. Most common factory fill.
Synthetic grease	High	−50 to 180°C	Extended life, wide temperature range
PTFE / dry film	Low-med	−70 to 260°C	Clean rooms, food, no liquid lubricant allowed
Oil bath	High	−20 to 150°C	High speed, continuous. Better heat dissipation.
Oil mist	Very high	Varies	Precision spindles. Requires mist system.
Sealed (2RS)	Low-med	−30 to 110°C	Pre-greased for life. No maintenance. Most practical for product dev.

Load ratings approximate. Consult SKF/NSK/FAG catalogs for exact specifications.

Washers

ISO 7089 · ASME B18.22

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Metric

Imperial

copied—

PinPinned

Inner Ø

—

Outer Ø

—

Thickness

—

copied

Bear. Area

—

mm²

copied

OD Ratio

—

×d

copied

Min Boss Ø

—

Bearing area = π/4 × (OD² − ID²). For plastic substrates, a washer reduces surface stress by 3–10× compared to bare fastener head.

OD should be ≥ 2× bolt diameter for effective load distribution on soft materials.

For plastic housings, always use a washer under the head — direct fastener contact crushes the boss over time.

Split lock washers are not recommended under vibration per NASA/ESA fastener standards — use prevailing torque nuts or Nordlock instead.

Washer Type Selection

Type	Standard	Use Case
Flat (narrow)	ISO 7089	General purpose, close bolt clearance
Flat (wide)	ISO 7093	Soft materials, oversized holes, load spreading
Flat (chamfered)	ISO 7090	Under hex head bolts, aligned bearing face
Spring (split)	DIN 127	Anti-loosening under vibration (limited effectiveness)
Nordlock	—	High vibration — mechanically locks via wedge action
Belleville	DIN 2093	Preload retention, thermal expansion compensation
Fender	—	Very large OD, sheet metal, thin wall panels

Dimensions per ISO 7089. Bearing area and boss diameter are calculated values for reference.

Nuts

ISO 4032 · ASME B18.2.2

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Metric

Imperial

copied—

PinPinned

Pitch

—

A/Flats

—

Height

—

copied

A/Corners

—

copied

Wrench Size

—

copied

Min Engage

—

Thread engagement minimum: 1× diameter in steel, 1.5× in aluminum, 2× in plastic.

Across corners = A/F × 1.155. Critical for socket/access clearance in tight bays.

Use nyloc / flange nuts in vibration. Nyloc max temp ~120°C — use all-metal locknuts above this.

Never pair stainless bolts with carbon steel nuts — galvanic corrosion will seize the joint. Match materials.

Nut Type Selection

Type	Standard	Best For
Hex (full)	ISO 4032	General purpose. Full nut height = 1× diameter engagement
Hex thin	ISO 4035	Jam nut (lock against another nut), space-constrained
Nyloc	ISO 7042	Anti-vibration. One-use. Max 120°C. Do not reuse.
All-metal lock	ISO 7044	High temp vibration environments. Reusable (×5 max)
Flange (serrated)	DIN 6923	Integrated washer face. Good grip on painted surfaces
Cap / acorn	DIN 1587	Thread protection, aesthetics, exposed fastener ends
Wing	DIN 315	Hand-tightened applications, quick removal

Strength Grades — Metric (ISO 898-2)

Grade	Proof Load	Material	Pair With Bolt
5	500 MPa	Carbon steel	Grade 8.8 and below
8	800 MPa	Carbon steel, Q&T	Grade 8.8 – 10.9
10	1040 MPa	Alloy steel, Q&T	Grade 10.9 – 12.9
A2-70	450 MPa	304 stainless	A2-70 bolts
A4-80	600 MPa	316 stainless	A4-80 bolts, marine use

Dimensions per ISO 4032. Proof loads are indicative — verify against material cert for critical joints.

Standoffs

M2–M8 · PCB · Hex

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Metric

Imperial

Type

Length

copied—

PinPinned

Thread Ø

—

Hex A/F

—

Stud L

—

copied

PCB Hole Ø

—

Material

Brass

PCB hole = thread Ø + 0.2–0.3mm clearance. Tight fits crack pads on assembly.

F–F for PCB stacking. M–F for boards threaded into a base plate.

Brass is standard — non-magnetic, won't corrode against aluminum chassis. Use stainless for harsh environments.

Stack height = standoff length + PCB thickness. Add 1.5mm min for bottom-side component clearance.

M2.5 is the PCB default in consumer electronics. M3 for repeated assembly or structural loads.

Type Selection

Type	Best For
F–F hex	PCB mounting, stacked assemblies, bolt-through panels
M–F hex	Screw into base plate, second PCB bolts on top
M–M hex	Spacers between two threaded holes, sensor mounts
Round F–F	Space-critical or aesthetic enclosures
Swage/press	Sheet metal panels — no rear access needed

Common Heights

Height	Common Use
3mm	Minimum clearance, ultra-low profile
5mm	Standard single-sided PCB
6mm	PCB + through-hole component clearance
10mm	Tall connectors (USB-A, barrel jack)
15mm	Dev boards, Arduino/RPi shields
20–25mm	Sub-chassis spacing, battery clearance

Per DIN 9021 / ISO 11207. Stud length for M–F types: 3–4mm for M3 and below, 5–6mm for M4+.

Set Screws

ISO 4026–4029 · ASME B18.3

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Metric

Imperial

Point Type

Length

copied—

PinPinned

Hex Key

—

Torque

—

N·m

Dog Flat Ø

—

Cup point — 90% of all use. Bites into shaft, high holding force. Creates a small crater.

Flat point for hardened shafts or when shaft must remain undamaged for reuse.

Dog point into a milled flat or dimple — highest holding force, prevents rotation under high torque.

Length ≥ 1–1.5× thread diameter. Too short strips; too long protrudes into bore.

Drill a 0.5mm flat on shaft for cup point — dramatically increases holding torque and prevents migration.

Point Type Comparison

Point	ISO	Holding	Shaft	Best For
Cup	ISO 4029	High	Crater	General use, hubs, pulleys
Flat	ISO 4026	Medium	Minimal	Precision shafts, reusable assemblies
Cone	ISO 4027	Very high	Deep mark	Permanent, anti-tamper
Dog	ISO 4028	Very high	Flat needed	High torque, positive location

Metric Torques (Grade 45H, dry)

Size	Key mm	Torque N·m	Torque lbf·in
M2	0.9	0.07	0.6
M2.5	1.3	0.13	1.2
M3	1.5	0.25	2.2
M4	2.0	0.6	5.3
M5	2.5	1.2	10.6
M6	3.0	2.0	17.7
M8	4.0	5.0	44.3
M10	5.0	9.5	84.1
M12	6.0	16	142

Per ISO 4026–4029. Grade 45H = 45 HRC. Reduce torque ~25% for stainless.

Dowel Pins

ISO 8734 · ASME B18.8.2

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Diameter (mm)

Diameter (inch)

Fit Type

Length

copied—

PinPinned

Pin Ø / Tol

—

Hole Ø

—

Interference

—

µm

copied

Chamfer Lead-in

—

Min Depth (each)

—

Press fit (m6): 2–18µm interference. Use arbor press — never hammer. Hole must be reamed, not just drilled.

Location fit (h6): zero-to-clearance. Pushes in by hand. For removable alignment — tooling plates, jigs, fixtures.

Depth ≥ 1× diameter per part. Always use 2 dowels minimum — one prevents translation, two prevent rotation.

Drill undersized then ream to final diameter. Reamed: ±2–5µm. Drilled: ±50–100µm — not good enough for press fit.

Add a vent groove in blind holes — trapped air prevents full seating and can crack housings.

Dowel Pin Materials

Material	Hardness	Best For
Hardened steel	58–65 HRC	Standard. Maximum wear resistance, high shear strength.
Stainless 316	~30 HRC	Corrosion resistance — food, medical, marine.
Soft steel	~15 HRC	Sacrificial shear pin — yields before housing does.
Ceramic (Al₂O₃)	Mohs 9	Non-magnetic, non-conductive — MRI, clean rooms.

ISO 8734 hardened steel. m6 tolerance for press fit, h6 for location. Ream holes to H7.

Retaining Rings

DIN 471 / 472 · ASME B27.7

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Type

Shaft / Bore Ø

copied—

PinPinned

Groove Ø

—

Groove Width

—

Ring Thickness

—

copied

Thrust Load

—

Pliers Type

—

External (DIN 471): groove in shaft. Ring snaps in, retains components from sliding off axially.

Internal (DIN 472): groove inside bore. Ring expands into groove, retains components inside bore.

Groove must be machined to spec — rough or undersize groove causes stress concentration and premature failure.

Use correct pliers — external needs tips fitting the lug holes, internal needs expanding tips. Wrong tool = damaged bore.

Never reuse a ring that's been removed — they plastically deform on installation. Keep spares.

Type Comparison

Type	Std	Load	Best For
External C-clip	DIN 471	High	Shafts, axles, gears, pulleys
Internal C-clip	DIN 472	High	Bearing retention in bores and housings
E-ring	DIN 6799	Medium	Pins, small shafts — no pliers needed
Spiral ring	DIN 9045	High	High thrust, no groove distortion

Groove dims per DIN 471/472. Static thrust loads shown — reduce 50% for dynamic applications.

Visualsizer

UNCALIBRATEDCALIBRATED

Not calibrated
Tap to calibrate for true size

Calibrate

Part Type

Size

Pro Feature

This part type requires Pro. Screws, nuts & washers are always free.

Place parts on the screen gently.
Use the calibrate tool for ±0.2–0.5mm accuracy.
For visual reference only.

Reference

Calculators · Standards · DFM

Calculators

Standards PRO

Select a topic above

Choose a calculator or reference — content appears here.

Unit Converter

Length · Torque · Temp · Pressure

Value

From

Result

—

Tolerance Stack-up

Worst case · RSS method

Part 1 nominal

Part 1 tol ±

Part 2 nominal

Part 2 tol ±

Part 3 nominal

Part 3 tol ±

Total Nominal

—mm

Worst case ±— mm · RSS ±— mm

Press Fit

Interference · Contact pressure · Force

Shaft Ø d

Interference δ

Hub OD D

Hub Length L

Material

µ friction

—

Contact Pressure

—MPa

Assembly force: — kN · Holding torque: — N·m

Sheet Metal Bend

Bend allowance · K-factor · Setback

Thickness

Bend angle

Bend radius

Material

Bend Allowance

—mm

Setback: — mm · Flat length = L1 + L2 + BA

Spring Rate

Coil spring · Wahl factor · Index

Wire Ø d

Mean coil Ø D

Active coils Na

—

Material G

Spring Rate k

—N/mm

Index C=— · Wahl Kw=— · —

Bearing L10 Life

ISO 281 · Dynamic load · Hours

Dynamic C

Applied P

Speed

rpm

L10 Life

—M rev

— hours at given speed

Fastener Torque

Metric · Imperial · K-factor

System

Size

Grade

Lubrication

Recommended Torque

—N·m · —lbf·in

True Position (GD&T)

ASME Y14.5 · MMC bonus

X deviation

Y deviation

Tol (print) ⌀

MMC bonus ⌀

mm (0 if none)

Actual Position ⌀

—mm

Symbol	Char	Type	Controls
Flatness	⏥	Form	How flat a surface is. No datum needed.
Straightness	⏤	Form	How straight a line element or axis is.
Circularity	○	Form	Roundness of a cross-section. No datum.
Cylindricity	⌭	Form	Combines roundness, straightness & taper.
Parallelism	∥	Orientation	Surface or axis parallel to datum.
Perpendicularity	⊥	Orientation	Surface or axis 90° to datum.
Angularity	∠	Orientation	Surface or axis at specified angle to datum.
Position	⊕	Location	True position of a feature. Most common GD&T callout.
Concentricity	◎	Location	Axis of feature coincident with datum axis.
Symmetry	⌯	Location	Feature symmetric about datum plane.
Circular Runout		Runout	Surface variation per revolution about datum axis.
Total Runout		Runout	All surface elements across full part length.
Profile of Line	⌒	Profile	2D curve tolerance. With datum = location.
Profile of Surface	⌓	Profile	3D surface tolerance. Most powerful callout.

Symbol

Char

Type

Controls

Flatness

⏥

Form

How flat a surface is. No datum needed.

Straightness

⏤

Form

How straight a line element or axis is.

Circularity

○

Form

Roundness of a cross-section. No datum.

Cylindricity

⌭

Form

Combines roundness, straightness & taper.

Parallelism

∥

Orientation

Surface or axis parallel to datum.

Perpendicularity

⊥

Orientation

Surface or axis 90° to datum.

Angularity

∠

Orientation

Surface or axis at specified angle to datum.

Position

⊕

Location

True position of a feature. Most common GD&T callout.

Concentricity

◎

Location

Axis of feature coincident with datum axis.

Symmetry

⌯

Location

Feature symmetric about datum plane.

Circular Runout

Runout

Surface variation per revolution about datum axis.

Total Runout

Runout

All surface elements across full part length.

Profile of Line

⌒

Profile

2D curve tolerance. With datum = location.

Profile of Surface

⌓

Profile

3D surface tolerance. Most powerful callout.

Fit	ISO	Gap mm	Gap in	Use
Loose	H11/c11	+0.06→+0.33	+.002→+.013	Agricultural
Easy Run	H9/d9	+0.02→+0.10	+.001→+.004	Sleeve bearings
Close Run	H8/f7	+0.01→+0.05	+.0004→+.002	Gearbox shafts
Sliding	H7/g6	+.002→+.025	+.00008→+.001	Spindle bearings
Loc. Clear.	H7/h6	0→+0.025	0→+.001	Locating features
Loc. Trans.	H7/k6	−.006→+.019	−.0002→+.0008	Light press
Drive	H7/p6	−.01→−.042	−.0004→−.002	Dowel pins
Force	H7/s6	−.02→−.059	−.0008→−.002	Gear hubs

Fit

ISO

Gap mm

Gap in

Use

Loose

H11/c11

+0.06→+0.33

+.002→+.013

Agricultural

Easy Run

H9/d9

+0.02→+0.10

+.001→+.004

Sleeve bearings

Close Run

H8/f7

+0.01→+0.05

+.0004→+.002

Gearbox shafts

Sliding

H7/g6

+.002→+.025

+.00008→+.001

Spindle bearings

Loc. Clear.

H7/h6

0→+0.025

0→+.001

Locating features

Loc. Trans.

H7/k6

−.006→+.019

−.0002→+.0008

Light press

Drive

H7/p6

−.01→−.042

−.0004→−.002

Dowel pins

Force

H7/s6

−.02→−.059

−.0008→−.002

Gear hubs

Feature	Rule	Range
Wall	Uniform	1.5–3.0 mm
Draft	Min 1°/side	1–3° (+1°/0.025mm texture)
Rib thickness	50–70% wall	0.75–2.0 mm
Rib height	Max 3× wall	≤9mm at 3mm
Corner radii	Min 0.5mm	25–75% wall
Boss OD	2× insert OD	Per supplier
Undercuts	Avoid or side actions	Adds tooling cost

Feature

Rule

Range

Wall

Uniform

1.5–3.0 mm

Draft

Min 1°/side

1–3° (+1°/0.025mm texture)

Rib thickness

50–70% wall

0.75–2.0 mm

Rib height

Max 3× wall

≤9mm at 3mm

Corner radii

Min 0.5mm

25–75% wall

Boss OD

2× insert OD

Per supplier

Undercuts

Avoid or side actions

Adds tooling cost

Class	Ra µm	Draft	Appearance
A-1	0.012	0.5°	Mirror-bright, optics
A-2	0.025	0.5°	Near-mirror, clear parts
A-3	0.05	0.5°	High gloss consumer
B-1	0.4	1°	Semi-gloss standard
B-2	0.8	1°	Dull semi-gloss
C-1	1.6	1.5°	Matte functional
C-2	3.2	1.5°	Rough matte grip
EDM	3.2–12.5	+1°/0.025mm	Spark/chemical etch

Class

Ra µm

Draft

Appearance

A-1

0.012

0.5°

Mirror-bright, optics

A-2

0.025

0.5°

Near-mirror, clear parts

A-3

0.05

0.5°

High gloss consumer

B-1

0.4

1°

Semi-gloss standard

B-2

0.8

1°

Dull semi-gloss

C-1

1.6

1.5°

Matte functional

C-2

3.2

1.5°

Rough matte grip

EDM

3.2–12.5

+1°/0.025mm

Spark/chemical etch

VDI	Ra µm	Rz µm	Look
0	0.025	0.16	Mirror polish
6	0.1	0.63	High gloss
12	0.4	2.5	Semi-gloss
18	1.6	10	Satin/matte
24	6.3	40	Fine texture
30	25	160	Medium texture
36	100	630	Coarse texture

Pattern	Depth µm	Extra Draft	Description
MT-11000	13	+0.5°	Very fine leather
MT-11010	18	+1°	Fine leather grain
MT-11020	25	+1.5°	Medium leather
MT-11030	38	+2°	Coarse leather
MT-12000	20	+1°	Fine geometric
MT-12010	30	+1.5°	Medium geometric
Rule	—	+1° per 25µm	Always add draft for texture

Material	Nozzle °C	Bed °C	MPa	Notes
PLA	190–220	0–60	50–60	Easy, UV-sensitive
PETG	230–250	70–85	50–55	Chemical resistant
ABS	230–260	100–110	40–50	Needs enclosure
ASA	240–260	90–110	45–55	UV-resistant ABS
TPU 95A	220–240	30–60	25–35	Flex, print slow
Nylon PA6	250–280	70–90	70–85	Dry filament required
PC	280–320	110–130	55–70	Heat resist Tg 147°C
PEEK	380–420	120–160	100+	High-end printer req.

Material

Nozzle °C

Bed °C

MPa

Notes

PLA

190–220

0–60

50–60

Easy, UV-sensitive

PETG

230–250

70–85

50–55

Chemical resistant

ABS

230–260

100–110

40–50

Needs enclosure

ASA

240–260

90–110

45–55

UV-resistant ABS

TPU 95A

220–240

30–60

25–35

Flex, print slow

Nylon PA6

250–280

70–90

70–85

Dry filament required

280–320

110–130

55–70

Heat resist Tg 147°C

PEEK

380–420

120–160

100+

High-end printer req.

Shore	Feel	Materials
A 10–30	Gel	Gel pads, foam rubber
A 40–60	Rubber band	Soft O-rings, grips
A 60–80	Tyre tread	70A nitrile O-rings
A 80–95	Eraser	Rollers, drive belts
D 30–50	Semi-rigid	Soft PP, flex nylon
D 55–75	Plastic pen	ABS, PC, Nylon, PETG
D 80–90	Acrylic	POM (Delrin), PEEK

Shore

Feel

Materials

A 10–30

Gel

Gel pads, foam rubber

A 40–60

Rubber band

Soft O-rings, grips

A 60–80

Tyre tread

70A nitrile O-rings

A 80–95

Eraser

Rollers, drive belts

D 30–50

Semi-rigid

Soft PP, flex nylon

D 55–75

Plastic pen

ABS, PC, Nylon, PETG

D 80–90

Acrylic

POM (Delrin), PEEK

Rating	Solid	Liquid	Use
IP20	Finger-proof	None	Indoor electronics
IP44	1mm object	Splash any dir.	Garden tools
IP54	Dust-resist.	Splash	Outdoor IoT
IP55	Dust-resist.	Jets 12.5 L/min	Industrial
IP65	Dust-tight	Low jets	Cameras, sensors
IP66	Dust-tight	Powerful jets	Marine, wash-down
IP67	Dust-tight	1m/30 min	Wearables, phones
IP68	Dust-tight	Cont. submersion	Dive computers
IP69K	Dust-tight	Steam 80°C	Food/pharma

Rating

Solid

Liquid

Use

IP20

Finger-proof

None

Indoor electronics

IP44

1mm object

Splash any dir.

Garden tools

IP54

Dust-resist.

Splash

Outdoor IoT

IP55

Dust-resist.

Jets 12.5 L/min

Industrial

IP65

Dust-tight

Low jets

Cameras, sensors

IP66

Dust-tight

Powerful jets

Marine, wash-down

IP67

Dust-tight

1m/30 min

Wearables, phones

IP68

Dust-tight

Cont. submersion

Dive computers

IP69K

Dust-tight

Steam 80°C

Food/pharma

Standard	Angle	Pitch Example	Application
ISO Metric	60°	M3=0.5mm	General worldwide
MF Fine	60°	M3=0.35mm	Vibration-resistant
UNC	60°	¼-20	US general purpose
UNF	60°	¼-28	US fine, aerospace
BSP G/R	55° Whitworth	Per pipe size	UK/EU plumbing
NPT	60° taper	Per pipe size	US self-sealing pipe
ACME	29°	Coarse	Lead screws, vices

Standard

Angle

Pitch Example

Application

ISO Metric

60°

M3=0.5mm

General worldwide

MF Fine

60°

M3=0.35mm

Vibration-resistant

UNC

60°

¼-20

US general purpose

UNF

60°

¼-28

US fine, aerospace

BSP G/R

55° Whitworth

Per pipe size

UK/EU plumbing

NPT

60° taper

Per pipe size

US self-sealing pipe

ACME

29°

Coarse

Lead screws, vices

Process	Volume	Tolerance	Lead Time
FDM	1–50	±0.2–0.5mm	Hours–days
SLA	1–100	±0.05–0.15mm	Hours–days
SLS/MJF	1–1,000	±0.1–0.3mm	2–5 days
CNC Mill	1–10k	±0.01–0.05mm	3–10 days
CNC Turn	1–50k	±0.005–0.025mm	3–10 days
Sheet Metal	1–100k	±0.1–0.3mm	3–7 days
Inj. Molding	1k–1M+	±0.05–0.1mm	4–12 wks
Die Casting	5k–1M+	±0.1–0.3mm	6–16 wks

Process

Volume

Tolerance

Lead Time

FDM

1–50

±0.2–0.5mm

Hours–days

SLA

1–100

±0.05–0.15mm

Hours–days

SLS/MJF

1–1,000

±0.1–0.3mm

2–5 days

CNC Mill

1–10k

±0.01–0.05mm

3–10 days

CNC Turn

1–50k

±0.005–0.025mm

3–10 days

Sheet Metal

1–100k

±0.1–0.3mm

3–7 days

Inj. Molding

1k–1M+

±0.05–0.1mm

4–12 wks

Die Casting

5k–1M+

±0.1–0.3mm

6–16 wks

Ra µm	Ra µin	Process	Typical Use
0.025	1	Superfinish / lapping	Gauge surfaces, optical flats
0.05	2	Cylindrical grind	Precision bearing seats, sealing surfaces
0.1	4	Fine grind / hone	Hydraulic cylinder bores, piston pins
0.2	8	Fine turn / grind	Mating bearing surfaces, shaft journals
0.4	16	Fine turn	Close fits, O-ring grooves, seal faces
0.8	32	Finish turn / mill	General machined mating surfaces
1.6	63	Turn / mill	Standard machined surface — most common spec
3.2	125	Rough turn / mill	Non-critical machined surfaces, clearance holes
6.3	250	Rough mill / saw	Unmachined casting flash, rough stock
12.5	500	Saw / casting	Sand casting, forging, rough weld

Ra µm

Ra µin

Process

Typical Use

0.025

Superfinish / lapping

Gauge surfaces, optical flats

0.05

Cylindrical grind

Precision bearing seats, sealing surfaces

0.1

Fine grind / hone

Hydraulic cylinder bores, piston pins

0.2

Fine turn / grind

Mating bearing surfaces, shaft journals

0.4

Fine turn

Close fits, O-ring grooves, seal faces

0.8

Finish turn / mill

General machined mating surfaces

1.6

Turn / mill

Standard machined surface — most common spec

3.2

125

Rough turn / mill

Non-critical machined surfaces, clearance holes

6.3

250

Rough mill / saw

Unmachined casting flash, rough stock

12.5

500

Saw / casting

Sand casting, forging, rough weld

HRC	HV	HB	HRB	UTS MPa	Material Example
68	940	—	—	—	Max hardened tool steel
65	832	—	—	—	HSS cutting tools
60	697	—	—	—	File, Grade 12.9 bolt
55	596	—	—	~2000	Spring steel, drill bits
50	513	—	—	~1800	Carburised gear surface
45	446	425	—	~1550	Set screws (45H), dies
40	392	371	—	~1350	Grade 10.9 bolt
35	345	327	—	~1150	Grade 8.8 bolt, 4140 HT
30	302	286	—	~1000	Stainless A2/A4 bolt
20	226	214	—	~760	Annealed alloy steel
—	200	190	92	~660	Cold-rolled steel
—	155	147	80	~510	Mild steel (1020)
—	110	105	62	~360	6061-T6 aluminium
—	80	76	41	~260	Annealed aluminium

HRC

HRB

UTS MPa

Material Example

940

—

Max hardened tool steel

832

—

HSS cutting tools

697

—

File, Grade 12.9 bolt

596

—

~2000

Spring steel, drill bits

513

—

~1800

Carburised gear surface

446

425

—

~1550

Set screws (45H), dies

392

371

—

~1350

Grade 10.9 bolt

345

327

—

~1150

Grade 8.8 bolt, 4140 HT

302

286

—

~1000

Stainless A2/A4 bolt

226

214

—

~760

Annealed alloy steel

—

200

190

~660

Cold-rolled steel

—

155

147

~510

Mild steel (1020)

—

110

105

~360

6061-T6 aluminium

—

~260

Annealed aluminium

Material	UTS MPa	E GPa	Density g/cc	Machine	Stock	Cost
6061-T6 Al	310	69	2.7	⭐⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$
7075-T6 Al	572	72	2.81	⭐⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$$
MIC-6 Al plate	228	69	2.69	⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$$$
1018 Steel	440	200	7.87	⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$
4140 Steel HT	1020	200	7.85	⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$$
303 Stainless	620	193	8.0	⭐⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$$
316L Stainless	580	193	8.0	⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$$$
Grade 5 Ti	1000	114	4.43	⭐⭐	⚠ Custom	$$$$
C360 Brass	385	97	8.5	⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$$
C110 Copper	220	117	8.9	⭐⭐⭐	✓ Stock	$$$

Material

UTS MPa

E GPa

Density g/cc

Machine

Stock

Cost

6061-T6 Al

310

2.7

⭐⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

7075-T6 Al

572

2.81

⭐⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

MIC-6 Al plate

228

2.69

⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

$$$

1018 Steel

440

200

7.87

⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

4140 Steel HT

1020

200

7.85

⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

303 Stainless

620

193

8.0

⭐⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

316L Stainless

580

193

8.0

⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

$$$

Grade 5 Ti

1000

114

4.43

⭐⭐

⚠ Custom

$$$$

C360 Brass

385

8.5

⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

C110 Copper

220

117

8.9

⭐⭐⭐

✓ Stock

$$$

Material	UTS MPa	Tg °C	UL94	FDA	Shrink %	Stock
ABS	40–50	105	V-0 (FR grade)	—	0.4–0.7	✓ Stock
PC (Lexan)	55–75	147	V-0	—	0.5–0.7	✓ Stock
PC/ABS	55–65	120	V-0	—	0.4–0.7	✓ Stock
PP (Homo)	30–40	165	HB	✓	1.5–2.5	✓ Stock
HDPE	22–31	120	HB	✓	1.5–3.0	✓ Stock
Nylon PA6	70–85	220	V-2	—	0.6–1.4	✓ Stock
Nylon PA66	80–90	255	V-0 (GF30)	—	0.8–1.5	✓ Stock
POM (Delrin)	60–70	175	HB	✓	1.8–2.5	✓ Stock
PEEK	100	343	V-0	✓	0.3–0.5	⚠ Custom
PETG	50–55	80	HB	✓	0.4–0.7	✓ Stock
Acrylic (PMMA)	65–75	100	HB	—	0.2–0.6	✓ Stock
PVC rigid	40–60	80	V-0	—	0.2–0.6	✓ Stock
UHMWPE	20–40	80	HB	✓	3.0–5.0	✓ Stock

Concept	Formula / Rule	Typical values
Thermal resistance	Rθ = ΔT / P (°C/W)	Lower = better
Junction temp	Tj = Ta + P × (Rθja)	Tj < Tjmax − 15°C margin
Heatsink sizing	Rθsa = (Tjmax−Ta)/P − Rθjc − Rθcs	Budget 10°C for PCB spreading
Natural convection	~10–25 W at Rθ 2–5 °C/W	Fin area ≥ 50 cm² / watt
Forced air	~1–3 °C/W with 1–3 m/s airflow	Fan CFM = 2× free-air CFM

Concept

Formula / Rule

Typical values

Thermal resistance

Rθ = ΔT / P (°C/W)

Lower = better

Junction temp

Tj = Ta + P × (Rθja)

Tj < Tjmax − 15°C margin

Heatsink sizing

Rθsa = (Tjmax−Ta)/P − Rθjc − Rθcs

Budget 10°C for PCB spreading

Natural convection

~10–25 W at Rθ 2–5 °C/W

Fin area ≥ 50 cm² / watt

Forced air

~1–3 °C/W with 1–3 m/s airflow

Fan CFM = 2× free-air CFM

TIM Type	k W/m·K	Bondline µm	Best For
Thermal paste (AS5)	8.5	50–100	CPU/heatsink, re-workable
Phase-change pad	3–6	50–150	Production-friendly, no pump-out
Thermal pad (GP3000)	3.0	500–2000	PCB-to-chassis, forgiving surfaces
Graphite sheet	700 in-plane	25–100	Spreading only, very thin
Indium foil	82	100–250	Ultra-high-power, permanent

TIM Type

k W/m·K

Bondline µm

Best For

Thermal paste (AS5)

8.5

50–100

CPU/heatsink, re-workable

Phase-change pad

3–6

50–150

Production-friendly, no pump-out

Thermal pad (GP3000)

3.0

500–2000

PCB-to-chassis, forgiving surfaces

Graphite sheet

700 in-plane

25–100

Spreading only, very thin

Indium foil

100–250

Ultra-high-power, permanent

Metal	Potential V	Notes
Gold / Platinum	+1.2 to +1.5	Most noble — cathode in any pair
316 Stainless (passive)	+0.0 to +0.2	Passive film critical
304 Stainless (passive)	−0.05 to +0.1	—
Copper / Brass	−0.2 to −0.4	OK vs. steel; not vs. Al in wet
Tin / Lead	−0.3 to −0.5	—
Steel (carbon)	−0.5 to −0.7	Use anti-seize or isolator vs. Al
6061 Aluminium	−0.7 to −0.8	Anodize for protection
Zinc / Galv. steel	−0.9 to −1.1	Sacrificial anode for steel
Magnesium	−1.6 to −1.8	Least noble

Metal

Potential V

Notes

Gold / Platinum

+1.2 to +1.5

Most noble — cathode in any pair

316 Stainless (passive)

+0.0 to +0.2

Passive film critical

304 Stainless (passive)

−0.05 to +0.1

—

Copper / Brass

−0.2 to −0.4

OK vs. steel; not vs. Al in wet

Tin / Lead

−0.3 to −0.5

—

Steel (carbon)

−0.5 to −0.7

Use anti-seize or isolator vs. Al

6061 Aluminium

−0.7 to −0.8

Anodize for protection

Zinc / Galv. steel

−0.9 to −1.1

Sacrificial anode for steel

Magnesium

−1.6 to −1.8

Least noble

Treatment	Material	Thickness µm	Corrosion hrs (ASTM B117)
Type II Anodize	Al alloys	5–25	336–500
Type III Hard Anodize	Al alloys	25–75	1000+
Zinc plate (yellow chrom.)	Steel	8–12	200–500
Electroless Ni	Steel / Al	5–25	500–1000
Powder coat	Steel / Al	50–100	500–2000
Black oxide	Steel	1–2	72 (oil-sealed)
Passivate (SS)	Stainless	—	Restores passive film

Treatment

Material

Thickness µm

Corrosion hrs (ASTM B117)

Type II Anodize

Al alloys

5–25

336–500

Type III Hard Anodize

Al alloys

25–75

1000+

Zinc plate (yellow chrom.)

Steel

8–12

200–500

Electroless Ni

Steel / Al

5–25

500–1000

Powder coat

Steel / Al

50–100

500–2000

Black oxide

Steel

1–2

72 (oil-sealed)

Passivate (SS)

Stainless

—

Restores passive film

Mark	Region	Covers	Timeline	Rough Cost
CE	EU / EEA	Safety, EMC, RoHS. Self-declare or NB depending on directive.	2–6 months	$5k–$30k
FCC Part 15	USA	Unintentional EMC emitters (most electronics). SDoC or TCB.	4–10 weeks	$3k–$15k
FCC ID	USA	Intentional radiators (Wi-Fi, BT, LTE). TCB required.	6–14 weeks	$8k–$40k
IC (ISED)	Canada	Same lab as FCC in most cases. Add ~$2k to FCC cost.	6–12 weeks	$2k–$5k add-on
UL Listed	USA/Global	Safety for US market; wide retail acceptance. Annual audit.	3–9 months	$10k–$50k
FDA Class I	USA	Low-risk medical devices. 510(k) exempt, registration required.	1–3 months	$2k–$10k
FDA Class II	USA	Moderate-risk. 510(k) clearance required.	6–24 months	$50k–$300k
RoHS 3	EU	Restricts Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr6+, PBDE, BBP, DEHP, DBP, DIBP.	Built into CE	Testing ~$2k
REACH	EU	Chemical substances in products. SVHCs must be communicated.	Ongoing	$1k–$5k/yr
UKCA	UK	Post-Brexit CE equivalent. Mandatory Jan 2025+.	2–6 months	Similar to CE
PSE (Japan)	Japan	Electrical appliances. Diamond mark (specified) / circle (non-specified).	1–6 months	$5k–$25k

Mark

Region

Covers

Timeline

Rough Cost

EU / EEA

Safety, EMC, RoHS. Self-declare or NB depending on directive.

2–6 months

$5k–$30k

FCC Part 15

USA

Unintentional EMC emitters (most electronics). SDoC or TCB.

4–10 weeks

$3k–$15k

FCC ID

USA

Intentional radiators (Wi-Fi, BT, LTE). TCB required.

6–14 weeks

$8k–$40k

IC (ISED)

Canada

Same lab as FCC in most cases. Add ~$2k to FCC cost.

6–12 weeks

$2k–$5k add-on

UL Listed

USA/Global

Safety for US market; wide retail acceptance. Annual audit.

3–9 months

$10k–$50k

FDA Class I

USA

Low-risk medical devices. 510(k) exempt, registration required.

1–3 months

$2k–$10k

FDA Class II

USA

Moderate-risk. 510(k) clearance required.

6–24 months

$50k–$300k

RoHS 3

Restricts Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr6+, PBDE, BBP, DEHP, DBP, DIBP.

Built into CE

Testing ~$2k

REACH

Chemical substances in products. SVHCs must be communicated.

Ongoing

$1k–$5k/yr

UKCA

Post-Brexit CE equivalent. Mandatory Jan 2025+.

2–6 months

Similar to CE

PSE (Japan)

Japan

Electrical appliances. Diamond mark (specified) / circle (non-specified).

1–6 months

$5k–$25k